What is VxWorks 5.x?




VxWorks 5.x

In this section, we describe VxWorks, a popular real-time operating system providing hard real-time support. VxWorks, commercially developed by Wind River Systems, is widely used in automobiles, consumer and industrial devices, and networking equipment such as switches and routers. VxWorks is also used to control the two rovers—Spirit and Opportunity—that began exploring the planet Mars in 2004. The organization of VxWorks is shown in Figure 19.12.

VxWorks is centered around the Wind microkernel. Recall from our discussion in Section 2.7.3 that microkernels are designed so that the operating-system kernel provides a bare minimum of features; additional utilities, such as networking, file systems, and graphics, are provided in libraries outside of the kernel. This approach offers many benefits, including minimizing the size of the kernel—a desirable feature for an embedded system requiring a small footprint.

 The Wind microkernel supports the following basic features:

 • Processes. The Wind microkernel provides support for individual processes and threads (using the Pthread API). However, similar to Linux, VxWorks does not distinguish between processes and threads, instead referring to both as tasks.

 What is  VxWorks 5.x?

 

REAL-TIME LINUX

The Linux operating system is being used increasingly in real-time environments. We have already covered its soft real-time scheduling features (Section 5.6.3), whereby real-time tasks are assigned the highest priority in the system,. Additional features in the 2.6 release of the kernel make Linux increasingly suitable for embedded systems. These features include a fully preemptive kernel and a more efficient scheduling algorithm, which runs in 0(1) time regardless of the number of tasks active in the system. The 2.6 release also makes it easier to port Linux to different hardware architectures by dividing the kernel into modular components.

 Another strategy for integrating Linux into real-time environments involves combining the Linux operating system with a small real-time kernel, thereby providing a system that acts as both a general-purpose and a real-time system. This is the approach taken by the RTLinux operating system. In RTLinux, the standard Linux kernel runs as a task in a small real-time operating system. The real-time kernel handles all interrupts— directing each interrupt to a handler in the standard kernel or to an interrupt handler in the real-time kernel.

 Furthermore, RTLinux prevents the standard Linux kernel from ever disabling interrupts, thus ensuring that it cannot add latency to the real-time system. RTLinux also provides different scheduling policies, including rate-monotonic scheduling (Section 19.5.1) and earliest-deadline-first scheduling (Section 19.5.2).

• Scheduling. Wind provides two separate scheduling models: preemptive and nonpreemptive round-robin scheduling with 256 different priority levels. The scheduler also supports the POSIX API for real-time threads covered in Section 19.5.4.

• Interrupts. The Wind microkernel also manages interrupts. To support hard real-time requirements, interrupt and dispatch latency times are bounded.

• Interprocess communication. The Wind microkernel provides both shared memory and message passing as mechanisms for communication between separate tasks. Wind also allows tasks to communicate using a technique known as pipes—a mechanism that behaves in the same way as a FIFO queue but allows tasks to communicate by writing to a special file, the pipe.

To protect data shared by separate tasks, VxWorks provides semaphores and mutex locks with a priority inheritance protocol to prevent priority inversion. Outside the microkernel, VxWorks includes several component libraries that provide support for POSrx, Java, TCP/IP networking, and the like. All components are optional, allowing the designer of an embedded system to customize the system according to its specific needs.

For example, if networking is not required, the TCP/IP library can be excluded from the image of the operating system. Such a strategy allows the operating-system designer to 712 Chapter 19 Real-Time Systems include only required features, thereby minimizing the size—or footprint—of the operating system. VxWorks takes an interesting approach to memory management, supporting two levels of virtual memory. The first level, which is quite simple, allows control of the cache on a per-page basis. This policy enables an application to specify certain pages as non-cacheable.

 When data are being shared by separate tasks running on a multiprocessor architecture, it is possible that shared data can reside in separate caches local to individual processors. Unless an architecture supports a cache-coherency policy to ensure that the same data residing in two caches will not be different, such shared data should not be cached and should instead reside only in main memory so that all tasks maintain a consistent view of the data.

 The second level of virtual memory requires the optional virtual memory component VxVMI (Figure 19.12), along with processor support for a memory management unit (MMU). By loading this optional component on systems with an MMU, VxWorks allows a task to mark certain data areas as private. A data area marked as private may only be accessed by the task it belongs to. Furthermore, VxWorks allows pages containing kernel code along with the interrupt vector to be declared as read-only. This is useful, as VxWorks does not distinguish between user and kernel modes; all applications run in kernel mode, giving an application access to the entire address space of the system.



Frequently Asked Questions

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Ans: Implementing Real-Time Operating Systems Keeping in mind the many possible variations, we now identify the features necessary for implementing a real-time operating system. This list is by no means absolute; some systems provide more features than we list below, while other systems provide fewer. • Preemptive, priority-based scheduling • Preemptive kernel • Minimized latency view more..
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Ans: Features of Real-Time Kernels In this section, we discuss the features necessary for designing an operating system that supports real-time processes. Before we begin, though, let's consider what is typically not needed for a real-time system. We begin by examining several features provided in many of the operating systems discussed so far in this text, including Linux, UNIX, and the various versions of Windows. These systems typically provide support for the following: • A variety of peripheral devices such as graphical displays, CD, and DVD drives • Protection and security mechanisms • Multiple users Supporting these features often results in a sophisticated—and large—kernel. For example, Windows XP has over forty million lines of source code. view more..
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Ans: Concurrency Control We move next to the issue of concurrency control. In this section, we show how certain of the concurrency-control schemes discussed in Chapter 6 can be modified for use in a distributed environment. The transaction manager of a distributed database system manages the execution of those transactions (or subtransactions) that access data stored in a local site. Each such transaction may be either a local transaction (that is, a transaction that executes only at that site) or part of a global transaction (that is, a transaction that executes at several sites). Each transaction manager is responsible for maintaining a log for recovery purposes and for participating in an appropriate concurrency-control scheme to coordinate the conciirrent execution of the transactions executing at that site. As we shall see, the concurrency schemes described in Chapter 6 need to be modified to accommodate the distribution of transactions. view more..
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Ans: VxWorks 5.x In this section, we describe VxWorks, a popular real-time operating system providing hard real-time support. VxWorks, commercially developed by Wind River Systems, is widely used in automobiles, consumer and industrial devices, and networking equipment such as switches and routers. VxWorks is also used to control the two rovers—Spirit and Opportunity—that began exploring the planet Mars in 2004. The organization of VxWorks is shown in Figure 19.12. VxWorks is centered around the Wind microkernel. Recall from our discussion in Section 2.7.3 that microkernels are designed so that the operating-system kernel provides a bare minimum of features; additional utilities, such as networking, file systems, and graphics, are provided in libraries outside of the kernel. This approach offers many benefits, including minimizing the size of the kernel—a desirable feature for an embedded system requiring a small footprint view more..
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Ans: Mutual Exclusion In this section, we present a number of different algorithms for implementing mutual exclusion in a distributed environment. We assume that the system consists of n processes, each of which resides at a different processor. To simplify our discussion, we assume that processes are numbered uniquely from 1 to n and that a one-to-one mapping exists between processes and processors (that is, each process has its own processor). view more..
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Ans: Event Ordering In a centralized system, we can always determine the order in which two events occurred, since the system has a single common memory and clock. Many applications may require us to determine order. For example, in a resourceallocation scheme, we specify that a resource can be used only after the resource has been granted. A distributed system, however, has no common memory and no common clock. Therefore, it is sometimes impossible to say which of two events occurred first. The liappened-before relation is only a partial ordering of the events in distributed systems. Since the ability to define a total ordering is crucial in many applications, we present a distributed algorithm for exterding the happened-before relation to a consistent total ordering of all the events in the system. view more..
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Ans: Types of System Calls System calls can be grouped roughly into five major categories: process control, file manipulation, device manipulation, information maintenance, and communications. In Sections 2.4.1 through 2.4.5, we discuss briefly the types of system calls that may be provided by an operating system. view more..
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Ans: Overview of Mass-Storage Structure In this section we present a general overview of the physical structure of secondary and tertiary storage devices. view more..
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Ans: Atomic Transactions The mutual exclusion of critical sections ensures that the critical sections are executed atomically. That is, if two critical sections are executed concurrently, the result is equivalent to their sequential execution in some unknown order. Although this property is useful in many application domains, in many cases we would like to make sure that a critical section forms a single logical unit of work that either is performed in its entirety or is not performed at all. An example is funds transfer, in which one account is debited and another is credited. Clearly, it is essential for data consistency either that both the credit and debit occur or that neither occur. Consistency of data, along with storage and retrieval of data, is a concern often associated with database systems. Recently, there has been an upsurge of interest in using database-systems techniques in operating systems. view more..
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Ans: Programmer Interface The Win32 API is the fundamental interface to the capabilities of Windows XP. This section describes five main aspects of the Win32 API: access to kernel objects, sharing of objects between processes, process management, interprocess communication, and memory management. view more..
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Ans: Memory Management The main memory is central to the operation of a modern computer system. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes, ranging in size from hundreds of thousands to billions. Each word or byte has its own address. Main memory is a repository of quickly accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O devices. The central processor reads instructions from main memory during the instruction-fetch cycle and both reads and writes data from main memory during the data-fetch cycle (on a Von Neumann architecture). The main memory is generally the only large storage device that the CPU is able to address and access directly. view more..
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Ans: Storage Management To make the computer system convenient for users, the operating system provides a uniform, logical view of information storage. The operating system abstracts from the physical properties of its storage devices to define a logical storage unit, the file. The operating system maps files onto physical media and accesses these files via the storage devices view more..
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Ans: Protection and Security If a computer system has multiple users and allows the concurrent execution of multiple processes, then access to data must be regulated. For that purpose, mechanisms ensure that files, memory segments, CPU, and other resources can be operated on by only those processes that have gained proper authorization from the operating system. For example, memory-addressing hardware ensures that a process can execute only within its own address space. view more..
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Ans: Distributed Systems A distributed system is a collection of physically separate, possibly heterogeneous computer systems that are networked to provide the users with access to the various resources that the system maintains. Access to a shared resource increases computation speed, functionality, data availability, and reliability. Some operating systems generalize network access as a form of file access, with the details of networking contained in the network interface's device driver. view more..
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Ans: Special-Purpose Systems The discussion thus far has focused on general-purpose computer systems that we are all familiar with. There are, however, different classes of computer systems whose functions are more limited and whose objective is to deal with limited computation domains. view more..
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Ans: Operating systems provide a number of services. At the lowest level, system calls allow a running program to make requests from the operating system directly. At a higher level, the command interpreter or shell provides a mechanism for a user to issue a request without writing a program. Commands may come from files during batch-mode execution or directly from a terminal when in an interactive or time-shared mode. System programs are provided to satisfy many common user requests. The types of requests vary according to level. view more..
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Ans: Summary A thread is a flow of control within a process. A multithreaded process contains several different flows of control within the same address space. The benefits of multithreading include increased responsiveness to the user, resource sharing within the process, economy, and the ability to take advantage of multiprocessor architectures. User-level threads are threads that are visible to the programmer and are unknown to the kernel. view more..
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Ans: Motivation A distributed system is a collection of loosely coupled processors interconnected by a communication network. From the point of view of a specific processor in a distributed system, the rest of the processors and their respective resources are remote, whereas its own resources are local. The processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. They may include small microprocessors, workstations, minicomputers, and large general-purpose computer systems. view more..




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