BLUETOOTH




BLUETOOTH

Let us start our study of the Bluetooth system with a quick overview of what it contains and what it is intended to do. The basic unit of a Bluetooth system is a piconet, which consists of a master node and up to seven active slave nodes within a distance of 10 meters. Multiple piconets can exist in the same (large) room and can even be connected via a bridge node that takes part in multiple piconets, as in Fig. 4-34. An interconnected collection of piconets is called a scatternet.

In addition to the seven active slave nodes in a piconet, there can be up to 255 parked nodes in the net. These are devices that the master has switched to a lowpower state to reduce the drain on their batteries. In parked state, a device cannot

BLUETOOTH

do anything except respond to an activation or beacon signal from the master. Two intermediate power states, hold and sniff, also exist, but these will not concern us here.

The reason for the master/slave design is that the designers intended to facilitate the implementation of complete Bluetooth chips for under $5. The consequence of this decision is that the slaves are fairly dumb, basically just doing whatever the master tells them to do. At its heart, a piconet is a centralized TDM system, with the master controlling the clock and determining which device gets to communicate in which time slot. All communication is between the master and a slave; direct slave-slave communication is not possible.

Bluetooth Applications

Most network protocols just provide channels between communicating entities and let application designers figure out what they want to use them for. For example, 802.11 does not specify whether users should use their notebook computers for reading email, surfing the Web, or something else. In contrast, the Bluetooth SIG specifies particular applications to be supported and provides different protocol stacks for each one. At the time of writing, there are 25 applications, which are called profiles. Unfortunately, this approach leads to a very large amount of complexity. We will omit the complexity here but will briefly look at the profiles to see more clearly what the Bluetooth SIG is trying to accomplish.

Six of the profiles are for different uses of audio and video. For example, the intercom profile allows two telephones to connect as walkie-talkies. The headset and hands-free profiles both provide voice communication between a headset and its base station, as might be used for hands-free telephony while driving a car.

Other profiles are for streaming stereo-quality audio and video, say, from a portable music player to headphones, or from a digital camera to a TV.

The human interface device profile is for connecting keyboards and mice to computers. Other profiles let a mobile phone or other computer receive images from a camera or send images to a printer. Perhaps of more interest is a profile to use a mobile phone as a remote control for a (Bluetooth-enabled) TV.

Still other profiles enable networking. The personal area network profile lets Bluetooth devices form an ad hoc network or remotely access another network, such as an 802.11 LAN, via an access point. The dial-up networking profile was actually the original motivation for the whole project. It allows a notebook computer to connect to a mobile phone containing a built-in modem without using wires.

Profiles for higher-layer information exchange have also been defined. The synchronization profile is intended for loading data into a mobile phone when it leaves home and collecting data from it when it returns.

We will skip the rest of the profiles, except to mention that some profiles serve as building blocks on which the above profiles are built. The generic access profile, on which all of the other profiles are built, provides a way to establish and maintain secure links (channels) between the master and the slaves. The other generic profiles define the basics of object exchange and audio and video transport. Utility profiles are used widely for functions such as emulating a serial line, which is especially useful for many legacy applications.

Was it really necessary to spell out all these applications in detail and provide different protocol stacks for each one? Probably not, but there were a number of different working groups that devised different parts of the standard, and each one just focused on its specific problem and generated its own profile. Think of this as Conway’s Law in action. (In the April 1968 issue of Datamation magazine, Melvin Conway observed that if you assign n people to write a compiler, you will get an n-pass compiler, or more generally, the software structure mirrors the structure of the group that produced it.) It would probably have been possible to get away with two protocol stacks instead of 25, one for file transfer and one for streaming real-time communication.

The Bluetooth Protocol Stack

The Bluetooth standard has many protocols grouped loosely into the layers shown in Fig. 4-35. The first observation to make is that the structure does not follow the OSI model, the TCP/IP model, the 802 model, or any other model. The bottom layer is the physical radio layer, which corresponds fairly well to the physical layer in the OSI and 802 models. It deals with radio transmission and modulation. Many of the concerns here have to do with the goal of making the system inexpensive so that it can become a mass-market item.

BLUETOOTH

The link control (or baseband) layer is somewhat analogous to the MAC sublayer but also includes elements of the physical layer. It deals with how the master controls time slots and how these slots are grouped into frames.

Next come two protocols that use the link control protocol. The link manager handles the establishment of logical channels between devices, including power management, pairing and encryption, and quality of service. It lies below the host controller interface line. This interface is a convenience for implementation: typically, the protocols below the line will be implemented on a Bluetooth chip, and the protocols above the line will be implemented on the Bluetooth device that hosts the chip.

The link protocol above the line is L2CAP (Logical Link Control Adaptation Protocol). It frames variable-length messages and provides reliability if needed. Many protocols use L2CAP, such as the two utility protocols that are shown. The service discovery protocol is used to locate services within the network. The RFcomm (Radio Frequency communication) protocol emulates the standard serial port found on PCs for connecting the keyboard, mouse, and modem, among other devices.

The top layer is where the applications are located. The profiles are represented by vertical boxes because they each define a slice of the protocol stack for a particular purpose. Specific profiles, such as the headset profile, usually contain only those protocols needed by that application and no others. For example, profiles may include L2CAP if they have packets to send but skip L2CAP if they have only a steady flow of audio samples.

In the following sections, we will examine the Bluetooth radio layer and various link protocols, since these roughly correspond to the physical and MAC sublayers in the other procotol stacks we have studied.

The Bluetooth Radio Layer

The radio layer moves the bits from master to slave, or vice versa. It is a low-power system with a range of 10 meters operating in the same 2.4-GHz ISM band as 802.11. The band is divided into 79 channels of 1 MHz each. To coexist with other networks using the ISM band, frequency hopping spread spectrum is used. There can be up to 1600 hops/sec over slots with a dwell time of 625 μsec. All the nodes in a piconet hop frequencies simultaneously, following the slot timing and pseudorandom hop sequence dictated by the master.

Unfortunately, it turned out that early versions of Bluetooth and 802.11 interfered enough to ruin each other’s transmissions. Some companies responded by banning Bluetooth altogether, but eventually a technical solution was devised. The solution is for Bluetooth to adapt its hop sequence to exclude channels on which there are other RF signals. This process reduces the harmful interference. It is called adaptive frequency hopping.

Three forms of modulation are used to send bits on a channel. The basic scheme is to use frequency shift keying to send a 1-bit symbol every microsecond, giving a gross data rate of 1 Mbps. Enhanced rates were introduced with the 2.0 version of Bluetooth. These rates use phase shift keying to send either 2 or 3 bits per symbol, for gross data rates of 2 or 3 Mbps. The enhanced rates are only used in the data portion of frames.

The Bluetooth Link Layers

The link control (or baseband) layer is the closest thing Bluetooth has to a MAC sublayer. It turns the raw bit stream into frames and defines some key formats. In the simplest form, the master in each piconet defines a series of 625- μsec time slots, with the master’s transmissions starting in the even slots and the slaves’ transmissions starting in the odd ones. This scheme is traditional time division multiplexing, with the master getting half the slots and the slaves sharing the other half. Frames can be 1, 3, or 5 slots long. Each frame has an overhead of 126 bits for an access code and header, plus a settling time of 250–260 μsec per hop to allow the inexpensive radio circuits to become stable. The payload of the frame can be encrypted for confidentiality with a key that is chosen when the master and slave connect. Hops only happen between frames, not during a frame. The result is that a 5-slot frame is much more efficient than a 1-slot frame because the overhead is constant but more data is sent.

The link manager protocol sets up logical channels, called links, to carry frames between the master and a slave device that have discovered each other. A pairing procedure is followed to make sure that the two devices are allowed to communicate before the link is used. The old pairing method is that both devices must be configured with the same four-digit PIN (Personal Identification Number). The matching PIN is how each device would know that it was connecting to the right remote device. However, unimaginative users and devices default to PINs such as ‘‘0000’’ and ‘‘1234’’ meant that this method provided very little security in practice.

The new secure simple pairing method enables users to confirm that both devices are displaying the same passkey, or to observe the passkey on one device and enter it into the second device. This method is more secure because users do not have to choose or set a PIN. They merely confirm a longer, device-generated passkey. Of course, it cannot be used on some devices with limited input/output, such as a hands-free headset.

Once pairing is complete, the link manager protocol sets up the links. Two main kinds of links exist to carry user data. The first is the SCO (Synchronous Connection Oriented) link. It is used for real-time data, such as telephone connections. This type of link is allocated a fixed slot in each direction. A slave may have up to three SCO links with its master. Each SCO link can transmit one 64,000-bps PCM audio channel. Due to the time-critical nature of SCO links, frames sent over them are never retransmitted. Instead, forward error correction can be used to increase reliability.

The other kind is the ACL (Asynchronous ConnectionLess) link. This type of link is used for packet-switched data that is available at irregular intervals. ACL traffic is delivered on a best-effort basis. No guarantees are given. Frames can be lost and may have to be retransmitted. A slave may have only one ACL link to its master.

The data sent over ACL links come from the L2CAP layer. This layer has four major functions. First, it accepts packets of up to 64 KB from the upper layers and breaks them into frames for transmission. At the far end, the frames are reassembled into packets. Second, it handles the multiplexing and demultiplexing of multiple packet sources. When a packet has been reassembled, the L2CAP layer determines which upper-layer protocol to hand it to, for example, RFcomm or service discovery. Third, L2CAP handles error control and retransmission. It detects errors and resends packets that were not acknowledged. Finally, L2CAP enforces quality of service requirements between multiple links.

 



Frequently Asked Questions

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Ans: All MAC frames begin with a generic header. The header is followed by an optional payload and an optional checksum (CRC), as illustrated in Fig. 4-33. The payload is not needed in control frames, for example, those requesting channel slots. view more..
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Ans: At this point you may be thinking: why devise a new standard? Why not just use 802.11 or 3G? In fact, WiMAX combines aspects of both 802.11 and 3G, making it more like a 4G technology. view more..
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Ans: The main wireless LAN standard is 802.11. We gave some background information on it in Sec. 1.5.3. Now it is time to take a closer look at the technology. view more..
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Ans: In 1994, the L. M. Ericsson company became interested in connecting its mobile phones to other devices (e.g., laptops) without cables. Together with four other companies (IBM, Intel, Nokia, and Toshiba), it formed a SIG (Special Interest Group, i.e., consortium) in 1998 to develop a wireless standard for interconnecting computing and communication devices and accessories using short-range, low-power, inexpensive wireless radios. view more..
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Ans: Bluetooth defines several frame formats, the most important of which is shown in two forms in Fig. 4-36. It begins with an access code that usually identifies the master so that slaves within radio range of two masters can tell which traffic is for them. view more..
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Ans: Many organizations have multiple LANs and wish to connect them. Would it not be convenient if we could just join the LANs together to make a larger LAN? In fact, we can do this when the connections are made with devices called bridges. view more..
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Ans: To increase reliability, redundant links can be used between bridges. In the example of Fig. 4-43, there are two links in parallel between a pair of bridges. This design ensures that if one link is cut, the network will not be partitioned into two sets of computers that cannot talk to each other view more..
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Ans: In the early days of local area networking, thick yellow cables snaked through the cable ducts of many office buildings. Every computer they passed was plugged in. No thought was given to which computer belonged on which LAN. view more..
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Ans: The network layer is concerned with getting packets from the source all the way to the destination. Getting to the destination may require making many hops at intermediate routers along the way. view more..
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Ans: The main function of the network layer is routing packets from the source machine to the destination machine. In most networks, packets will require multiple hops to make the journey. The only notable exception is for broadcast networks, but even here routing is an issue if the source and destination are not on the same network segment. view more..
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Ans: When a routing algorithm is implemented, each router must make decisions based on local knowledge, not the complete picture of the network. A simple local technique is flooding, in which every incoming packet is sent out on every outgoing line except the one it arrived on. view more..
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Ans: Distance vector routing was used in the ARPANET until 1979, when it was replaced by link state routing. The primary problem that caused its demise was that the algorithm often took too long to converge after the network topology changed (due to the count-to-infinity problem). view more..
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Ans: As networks grow in size, the router routing tables grow proportionally. Not only is router memory consumed by ever-increasing tables, but more CPU time is needed to scan them and more bandwidth is needed to send status reports about them. view more..
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Ans: So far, we have covered delivery models in which a source sends to a single destination (called unicast), to all destinations (called broadcast), and to a group of destinations (called multicast). Another delivery model, called anycast is sometimes also useful. view more..
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Ans: Too many packets present in (a part of) the network causes packet delay and loss that degrades performance. This situation is called congestion. The network and transport layers share the responsibility for handling congestion. view more..
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Ans: In the Internet and many other computer networks, senders adjust their transmissions to send as much traffic as the network can readily deliver. In this setting, the network aims to operate just before the onset of congestion. view more..
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Ans: The techniques we looked at in the previous sections are designed to reduce congestion and improve network performance. However, there are applications (and customers) that demand stronger performance guarantees from the network than ‘‘the best that could be done under the circumstances. view more..
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Ans: Being able to regulate the shape of the offered traffic is a good start. However, to provide a performance guarantee, we must reserve sufficient resources along the route that the packets take through the network. view more..




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